The scope and application of jus cogens Dissertation

The scope and application of jus cogens - Dissertation Example It is the objective of jus cogens and erga omnes to promote and preserve the common interests of nations to a much greater extent than the international law. These tenets constitute constitutional rules that describe the basic features of the international legal system. They are also quite influential in determining the manner, in which international law is developed, preserved and modified. In addition, these rules protect civil liberties and human rights that are central to the individuality of the international legal system. A norm is regarded as jus cogens upon being accepted by the countries of the world, in their entirety. However, this does not require unanimous acceptance. Importantly, a few subjects of international law, acting in isolation or in association with other subjects, do not result in jus cogens; nor can they veto a decision of the majority of nations. This research work proves that the principle of jus cogens is procedurally ineffective with respect to the international norms prohibiting torture. The best way to address this issue is for the ICJ to become more proactive and clarify, via its rulings, the inherent ambiguity. In addition, a convention should be framed that implements the peremptory norms in a consistent manner. Jus Cogens Introduction Jus cogens or peremptory norms are uniquely situated in the hierarchy of international law. These norms have a binding effect upon every nation, which is a major difference between them and conventional treaty and international laws. In addition, this binding effect is independent of the willingness of a nation to be bound by these norms.1 As such, Jus cogens can be regarded as a body of rules, when certain fundamental universal principles that have a binding effect upon all the States are created. In addition, these rules should prove to be crucially important for the entire international community. As there is no established international legislative power, implementing competent international peremptory norms has its own peculia r necessity.2 Article 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, enabled State Parties to implement the concept of jus cogens in positive international law; initiating the utilisation of this notion. Specifically, jus cogens safeguards overriding interests and values of the comity of nations, and averts their deterioration and selective modification. 3 Jus cogens, in the contemporary milieu, finds general acceptance by State practice, as a rule of the traditional international law. This research work comprises of five sections. The first of these relates to the historical development of jus cogens. The second section describes the methods for identifying

Health Care Spending Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Health Care Spending - Essay Example Yet the citizens of these countries do have insurance that is provided by the government. Health Insurance Cost (2004) also states that "the average employee contribution to company-provided health insurance has increased more than 143 percent since 2000. Average out-of-pocket costs for deductibles, co-payments for medications, and co-insurance for physician and hospital visits rose 115 percent during the same period." The United States, with it wealth, education, technology, and power seems not to have a grasp on its health care spending as it spends twice as much pr capita and yet does not provide what other countries offer to their citizens. Increased health spending is causing many U.S. citizens to have no health insurance as the costs affect care that is offered to patients, public health programs, services provided in the home, etc. Due to these reasons, there is a larger gap between those who are considered the "haves" and the "have-nots". The increased costs, which affects patient care and services, programs offered to the public, in-home care, larger gaps between those who have and those who do not, etc. Yet on the other hand, it is the "what comes first the chicken or the egg" syndrome. Many believe that the reason the costs are so astounding is due to the outrageous prices charged by doctors, hospitals, pharmaceuticals, and other health care service providers. Some people believe that the United States offers the world's best health care system. However, being the most expensive system does not Health Care Spending 3 necessarily mean that it is the best. The U.S. Health Care System (2001) states that there, "42.6 million people in the U.S. currently without health insurance" Anderson (2004) suggests reasons why the spending in the U.S. is so high: These include greater use of medical services, greater administrative complexity in the U.S. health care system, increasing age of the U.S. population, threat of malpractice litigation, defensive medicine, the lack of waiting lists in the United States and higher incomes in the United States. None of these factors explain a large portion of the difference between health spending in the United States and other industrialized countries. Perhaps most surprising to many health care experts and certainly to the lay public is the fact that the United States has fewer hospital days per capita, fewer physician visits per capita, fewer MRIs and CT scanners s than the average industrialized country. The person in the United States is simply not receiving more medical care than people in many industrialized countries. The major reason why the United States spends so much on health care is that the U.S. residents pay two to three times more for hospital services, physician services and drugs tha n residents in other industrialized countries. These are the areas in which spending can be cut. It is suggested that corporations and industries refuse to pay more than what the Medicare program pays. Statistics show that the private sector pays an average of 10-20% more than Medicare. If industries refuse to pay the higher prices and negotiate lower medical and health care costs, this will reduce what individuals have to pay and will encourage Medicare to push for even lower prices. The government can also provide health Health Care

Ovid Metamorphoses Titian Perseus and Andromeda

Ovid Metamorphoses Titian Perseus and Andromeda As a painting, Perseus and Andromeda (Plate 3.6) cannot narrate the events in the same way as Ovids text, but instead captures the moment of Perseus fight with the sea monster. Titians painting could be considered a translation of Ovids poem insomuch as the key elements of Ovids myth remain; it is authentic in its representation and there are enough correspondences between the two pieces to make it clear that Ovids Metamorphoses is Titians original source. Having said that, Titian produced Perseus and Andromeda for a specific person and purpose, in the manner of other Renaissance artists, and, it was intended to be viewed together with the rest of the Poesie (Gould), so the painting could be described as a hybrid, or even a refiguration of the Ovidian legend. The painting shows Andromeda chained to a rock, her vulnerable pose contrasting plainly with Perseus powerful lunge. There is no mention in Ovids text of either Perseus or Andromedas clothing, except for Perseus sandals; Titian has respected Ovids work in this aspect, giving Perseus his winged sandals instead of the Pegasus that other artists have favoured. Andromedas nakedness in the painting symbolizes her innocence and vulnerability, characteristics also shown in Metamorphoses (Ovid 670-675), and also reflects the Renaissance culture in which the painting was produced. Gould quotes Titians letters to Philip II as evidence of the erotic aspect of Andromedas nudity, particularly when considered with the other poesia. (Gould) This nudity, when taken together with the bright colours used for Perseus clothing, places the emphasis clearly on the soon-to-be couple; our eyes are immediately drawn to the helpless girl awaiting rescue by her hero. Ovid also seems to highlight the heros figh t, dedicating almost a third of the full narrative to it. Titian parts from his source however, by consigning Andromedas parents to the background, if in fact, they appear at all in the extreme right background, a city is visible, and on the shore, a group of people; it is not clear however, whether this group includes her parents, or are those mentioned towards the end of Ovids tale (Ovid 735). Titian again follows the Metamorphoses with his inclusion of what appear to be shells and coral at Andromedas feet. The shells presumably represent the Nereids and are a reminder of the reason for Andromedas fate, while the coral recalling Ovids allegorical description of its creation (Ovid 740-753). The remaining part of Ovids narrative, Perseus sacrifices to the gods, does not appear in Titians painting. This may be simply because, in concentrating on Perseus fight with a sea monster, the painting necessarily becomes a seascape and the sacrifices that Ovid describes occur on land. In my opinion, Titians representation of Perseus and Andromeda is sympathetic to his source and invokes the excitement of Ovids own words. The Renaissance representation reflects some of Ovids more misogynistic elements. My only criticism of the Titian piece is the figure of Perseus, who seems to me to be falling, not fighting. Personally, this gives the painting a comic aspect that Im sure the artist had not intended and detracts from Ovids own emphatic telling of the myth. Part 2 (75 marks) Write an essay of not more than 2,000 words on the following. In what ways does Ovid manipulate a myth in order to highlight his theme of metamorphosis? Do you consider that this technique can lessen the myths impact and coherence at times? Answer with reference to a specific mythic narrative in Metamorphoses. Ovids epic poem brings together a collection of formerly unrelated myths connected by a mutual theme; metamorphosis. The transformations described by Ovid usually occur as a result of love or lust, consensual or otherwise, and are often used to explain the origins of particular animals, plants or natural phenomena. Since Ovid wrote his Metamorphoses, it has often been used as a source of myth, however, when compared to other sources, it is clear that Ovid manipulated the myths, displaying his knowledge of the myths and combining and separating them into new forms to suit his own agenda. Of course, it is the nature of myth that they should be moulded and transformed in each retelling, and this is evidenced in the extant works of the Greek tragedians. Ovid is, at times, faithful to his sources, but at others, he appears to delight in his manipulation of the traditional myths. Ovids chosen theme of transformation is not only seen explicitly within the myths, for example in Arachnes transformation into a spider (Ovid 6.140-145), but also implicitly in Ovids own transformation of the received version of the myths in the classical world. Homer or Hesiods treatment of myth is serious and deliberate, revealing much about the gods destructiveness, unpredictable moods, loves, and personal vendettas, appearing to define the authors perceptions of life itself. While the events may be dramatic, irrational or even comical, they are presented as serious perceptions on the way things are. Modern readers can understand how such tales would explain things such as natural phenomena or the existence of certain creatures. Ovids Metamorphoses however, appears to be primarily a collection of stories for the sake of entertainment and Ovids own fame. Whilst some of the myths retain their didactic elements, for example, Teiresias prophecy that Narcissus would live a long life so long as he never knows himself (Ovid 3.348), others appear to simply emphasize the gods desire to punish, for example Dianas punishment of Actaeon (Ovid 3.139-252). In fact, this change in attitude to the myths in the removal of some of the moral significance can also be described as a metamorphosis. Ovid also includes other transformations in his epic poem, such as transformations in human culture or in the natural world. Ovid highlights his theme throughout the Metamorphoses, emphasizing that everything changes, and that in fact, is the only constant (Ovid 15.176-452). The transformation of Narcissus is one of the best-known of the Greek myths and has inspired writers and artists for over two thousand years. There are several extant versions of the myth; the most well-known of these is Ovids version, found in Book III of his Metamorphoses (completed 8AD). Until recently, scholars assumed that Ovids version was the earliest; however an earlier version was discovered among the Oxryynchus papyri prompting Dr Benjamin Henry, the Oxford scholar who discovered the poem, to claim that the myth was altered by Ovid to broaden its appeal (Keys). This version, attributed to the poet Parthenius of Nicaea, is thought to have been composed some 40 years before Ovids version, and ends with Narcissus committing suicide. Conon, a contemporary of Ovids, tells the same myth in his Narrations and like Parthenius, ends it with Narcissus suicide, while Pausanias later version has Narcissus fall in love not with himself, but with his twin sister (Jacoby). Conons version is a more moral telling of the myth that sees Narcissus punished by the gods for his pride and vanity. The young man Aminias fell in love with Narcissus, and, like his fellow suitors was spurned by him, so took his sword and killed himself by the door, calling on the goddess Nemesis to avenge him. (Atsma) As a result of Nemesis curse, Narcissus fell in love with a reflection of himself in a stream, and in despair and guilt over his treatment of Aminias, Narcissus killed himself. That his death was more brutal than that portrayed in Ovids Metamorphoses is clear in Conons claim that From his blood sprang the flower. (Atsma) Ovids version of the myth begins with Teiresias prophecy that Narcissus should never know himself (Ovid 3.348), and then digresses with the tale of Echo. Echo, cursed by Juno for helping Jupiter to conceal his adultery, was only able to repeat the words she heard at the end of a sentence and never reply for herself (Ovid 3.369). When she saw Narcissus hunting in the woods, she, like many others before her, fell in love with him and followed him, repeating his last words in an attempt to communicate with him. When finally, feels encouraged enough by his words We must come together! (Ovid 3.386) to show herself, he rejects her harshly, Hands off! May I die before you enjoy my body! This is an ironic choice of words give his imminent demise, and Ovid is manipulating the tone here to reflect his earlier description of Narcissus as hard and proud (Ovid 3.353). Echo was left ashamed and broken-hearted, eventually wasting away until only her voice, an echo, remained. The connection betwee n Echo and Narcissus appears to be Ovids own invention since there are no earlier accounts that link the two characters. Ovids departure from the received narrative enables him to include two further metamorphoses in this poem. The first of these occurs when, in her anger, Juno transforms Echo from the crafty nymph with a prattling tongue (Ovid 3.367) to a poor creature (Ovid 3.374) who could only repeat others words, the second when Narcissus rejection of Echo triggers her further transformation into a mere voice (Ovid 3.359). The inclusion of Echo in the Narcissus narrative may not have been usual in Ovids time, but my first reading of the Narcissus myth was in Ovids Metamorphoses, so for me, the two characters have become truly interlinked. I am not inclined to pity Narcissus, so for me, the Echo story heightens the tragic timbre of the full narrative. Without the inclusion of Echo, the Narcissus myth becomes simply a story of a proud, arrogant boy getting his comeuppance, but Echos story invites compassion and even a desire for justice. Together with the additional opportunities for metamorphoses that her story provides, Ovids inclusion of Echo as a new part of the Narcissus myth was in my opinion, inspired, and resulted in a more compelling story. With his metamorphoses of Echo complete, Ovid returns the focus to Narcissus; at the appeal of one of his scorned admirers (Ovid 3.404), Nemesis curses Narcissus to fall in love and never obtain his desire (Ovid 3.405). We then encounter the first of Narcissus transformations the change from thirsting for water to thirsting for himself. Another transformation is Narcissus own character, changing from an arrogant youth with a heart so hard and proud (Ovid 3.354) through love to an anguished youth who welcomes death as an end to his heartache. Ovid subtly alludes to these more implicit transformations that infuse his Metamorphoses. Of course the most explicit transformation of the Echo and Narcissus story is Narcissus own transformation into the narcissus flower. This is the climax of the myth, the realisation of the theme of metamorphosis. Narcissus metamorphosis is the result of his pride, vanity, and his treatment of his admirers; as he rejected others, he is rejected by himself, becoming both the subject and object of unrequited love. Even in death, Ovid suggests that his arrogance continues; as he crossed the Styx to ghostly Hades, he gazed at himself in the river (Ovid 3.504). Ovid builds the suspense of the transformation itself gradually, not revealing the outcome until the final line in the narrative; The body, however, was not to be found only a flower with a trumpet of gold and pale white petals (Ovid 3.510). The fact that the narrative ends with the resulting metamorphosis illustrates Ovids desire to highlight his theme. Ovid uses metamorphosis to explore the social and cultural ramifications of th e events in his poem, for example, Narcissus harsh treatment of Echo resulted in her transformation into a mere voice (Ovid 3.359) Echo essentially lost herself to love. Gildenhard and Zissos believe that the poetic form of Metamorphoses is interrupted by the story of Narcissus, claiming that this confirms that the inclusion of this myth was an afterthought that Ovid felt was necessary to verify Teiresias prophecies. They believe that the Narcissus myth is a replacement for the Oedipal figure that would be expected at this point in the Theban books, quoting Hardies comments that Behind the Narcissus story there hovers the figure of the Sophoclean Oedipus, the glaring absence from the narrative surface of Ovids Theban books, Metamorphoses 3 and 4, but a ghostly presence in much of the drama of blindness, sight, and insight, particularly of the third book. (Gildenhard and Zissos 3) Their essay explores the intertextuality between Sophocles Oedipus Tyrannus and Ovids Narcissus myth, claiming that Oedipus and Narcissus emerge as thematic mirror reflections of each other (Gildenhard and Zissos 13). Gildenhard and Zissos conclude that Ovids inclusion of Na rcissus over Oedipus stems from a desire to concentrate on the members of Cadmus family, and that Oedipus tale would [not] have lent itself easily to inclusion within the tight-knit patterning of Cadmus daughters and nephews (Gildenhard and Zissos 17). However, in my opinion, the story of Echo and Narcissus is simply more appropriate to Ovids chosen theme. Even if Ovid did include it as an afterthought, or a way of proving Teiresias prophecies, he does so in such a way that it amplifies his metamorphosis theme. The story of Echo and Narcissus is one of my favourite classical myths, and also inspired one of my favourite paintings Salvador Dalis Metamorphosis of Narcissus. The tragedy, the anger and the justice of the myth come together with the transformations of the characters to produce a captivating story. The freshness and originality with which Ovid presents a well-known tale make it uniquely Ovidian. His writing is vivid and the story moves quickly, and whilst some may consider the inclusion of Echo a digression, the narrative still flows. In my opinion, Ovids manipulation of some of the key elements of the myth helps to enhance it further. The Parthenius and Conon versions of the myth that end in the suicide of Narcissus lack the poetic justice of Ovids slow decline. In Ovids versions of the myth, Narcissus gradual fading away mirrors Echos demise, and in this way, once again highlights Ovids theme of metamorphoses. When Narcissus is dying, he is not concerned about the world around him, about food, drink or sleep; he takes his last breath by the image he has fallen in love with but can never obtain (Ovid 3.405), and so dies alone, without love. Ovids masterful handling of the narrative gives it an intensity that can be hard to find in retellings of classical myths, but Ovids Echo and Narcissus has stood the test of time and continues to inspire other writers and artists even today. WORD COUNT: 1829

How Dickens Creates Sympathy for the Characters in Great Expectations E

How Dickens Creates Sympathy for the Characters in Great Expectations Published initially as a weekly contribution in a local newspaper, Dickens’ Great Expectations developed to be a great success. Great Expectations was a story for all classes, both rich and poor appreciated his efforts. Great Expectations is the tale of Phillip Pirrip who has no family except an older sister, he feels insecure in the world around him. Having no parents to give him a sense of identity, he wanders in the wilderness that is the graveyard to search for answers. Dickens’ own life was very much along the lines of Pip, his father a well paid clerk went to jail for unpaid debts. Dickens himself was a weak and feeble child who was not cared for. He moulds his family history in to the character of Pip, who also suffers in a way that Dickens had. This essay focuses on which writing techniques Dickens uses to help the reader empathize with the characters of Pip and Magwich. The techniques in particular to be examined are setting, characterization, narrative voice and dialogue. The chapter opens in the desolate setting of a marshy graveyard. Already an ambience of anxiety and uncertainty has been created. The marsh is a symbol of wilderness, amid which stands a lonely Pip. Pip is physically and mentally alone in his surroundings; he has no sense of belonging. This helps the reader empathize Pip’s helplessness and isolation. The wet and marshy scenery resemble a distorted nature, which reflects the events happening in Pip’s life. The graveyard symbolizes death and terror. It is in the graveyard that Pip realizes the death of his parents and encounters Magwich. Pip’s innocent mind hallucinates about the appearance of his parent... ... in the reader as he describes in his own words, his misfortune and abandoned past. Alternatively, Dickens use of dialogue with Magwich creates a negative impression for him in the reader. Magwich is very aggressive in his mannerism and dialogue, for instance, `Hold your noise'. The sudden contrast of dialogues (from courteous to offensive) creates confusion in the passage, similar to the one that runs between Magwich and Pip throughout the chapter. However, Magwich’s character is revealed through his dialogue and the reader starts comprehending his reason for acting hostile manner towards Pip. Like Pip, Magwich is also vulnerable as seen with `I wish I was a frog. Or a eel!’ This piece of dialogue shows Magwich as a man who is infuriated with his poor standard of life. The similarity between Magwich and Pip is made more apparent with their dialogue. How Dickens Creates Sympathy for the Characters in Great Expectations E How Dickens Creates Sympathy for the Characters in Great Expectations Published initially as a weekly contribution in a local newspaper, Dickens’ Great Expectations developed to be a great success. Great Expectations was a story for all classes, both rich and poor appreciated his efforts. Great Expectations is the tale of Phillip Pirrip who has no family except an older sister, he feels insecure in the world around him. Having no parents to give him a sense of identity, he wanders in the wilderness that is the graveyard to search for answers. Dickens’ own life was very much along the lines of Pip, his father a well paid clerk went to jail for unpaid debts. Dickens himself was a weak and feeble child who was not cared for. He moulds his family history in to the character of Pip, who also suffers in a way that Dickens had. This essay focuses on which writing techniques Dickens uses to help the reader empathize with the characters of Pip and Magwich. The techniques in particular to be examined are setting, characterization, narrative voice and dialogue. The chapter opens in the desolate setting of a marshy graveyard. Already an ambience of anxiety and uncertainty has been created. The marsh is a symbol of wilderness, amid which stands a lonely Pip. Pip is physically and mentally alone in his surroundings; he has no sense of belonging. This helps the reader empathize Pip’s helplessness and isolation. The wet and marshy scenery resemble a distorted nature, which reflects the events happening in Pip’s life. The graveyard symbolizes death and terror. It is in the graveyard that Pip realizes the death of his parents and encounters Magwich. Pip’s innocent mind hallucinates about the appearance of his parent... ... in the reader as he describes in his own words, his misfortune and abandoned past. Alternatively, Dickens use of dialogue with Magwich creates a negative impression for him in the reader. Magwich is very aggressive in his mannerism and dialogue, for instance, `Hold your noise'. The sudden contrast of dialogues (from courteous to offensive) creates confusion in the passage, similar to the one that runs between Magwich and Pip throughout the chapter. However, Magwich’s character is revealed through his dialogue and the reader starts comprehending his reason for acting hostile manner towards Pip. Like Pip, Magwich is also vulnerable as seen with `I wish I was a frog. Or a eel!’ This piece of dialogue shows Magwich as a man who is infuriated with his poor standard of life. The similarity between Magwich and Pip is made more apparent with their dialogue.

Childrens Friendships And Learning In School Education Essay

I have chosen a research article which is Children ‘s Friendships and Learning in School: Cognitive Enhancement through Social Interaction? This article was written by Peter Kutnick from Education Research Centre, University of Brighton and Alison Kington from School of Education, University of Nottingham. The chief subject of this research article is cognitive development. Both of the authors did the research because they wanted to look into about kids ‘s societal dealingss, whether it can develop their mental and believing procedure or non. Besides, they besides wanted to place the effectivity of the cognitive undertakings on kids ‘s cognitive degree. Harmonizing to Kutnick and Kington, the of import thought of this research is to reexamine the issues of classroom-based friendship couplings ; the pupils will better their public presentation increasingly on a cognitive undertaking than familiarity coupling. For this issue, it besides considers some factors or grounds such as gender, age and kids ‘s degree of ability. Besides, it is besides to place the effectivity of the classroom-based friendship couplings among the pupils. In add-on, it is besides to look into the characteristics of school-based friendly relationship expressed by immature kids. The survey was undertaken in the summer term of the school twelvemonth. For the Science Reasoning Tasks ( SRTs ) , there were 72 kids from a primary school in west London carried out the undertakings. The school was obtaining from a assorted working and middle-class community, and catagorised as co-ed school. Besides, the participants were selected sociometrically, chiefly with regard to friendly relationship and twelvemonth in school which is Year 1, 3 and 5. In this undertaking, the kids were given opportunities to hold their ain couplings based on their age category in school every bit good as based on their experience in join forcesing. Couplings are represented friendly relationship ( versus familiarity ) , sex which are male and female couplings and their age ; kids in Years 1, 3 and 5 in the primary school. It besides represented their ability which each brace stand foring a high, in-between and low- confirmed by the instructor appraisal and based on national course of study E nglish and Mathematics criterions. In this article, the positive effects of friendly relationship on cognitive development are presented by two theoretical attacks. First is from Piagetian position. Doise & A ; Mugny ( 1971 ) and Perret-Clermont ( 1984 ) , stated that â€Å" the mutualness of equals working together on a common job allows them to decide differences between their positions, which enhances the cognitive apprehension of each kid ( whether through cognitive struggle, taging or other societal procedures ) . † In add-on, Piaget, 1932 asserted that â€Å" mutualness is assumed to take topographic point in concerted relationships. † In short, based on above, we can reason that different pupils have different thoughts and sentiments, so when this happened, they will discourse it together among themselves. For illustration, they may inquire inquiries like â€Å" why you province the thought? † and â€Å" how this thought is related to the undertaking? † Therefore, this struggle will assist them to better their cognitive degree. The 2nd theory is from Vygotsky. Harmonizing to Kutnick ( 2005 ) , Vygotsky accepted that â€Å" interpersonal relationships are necessary for the development of new cognition and accomplishments, and that it is choice relationships ( that integrate positions with trust and support ) that provide the ‘scaffold ‘ for cognitive sweetening † . Briefly, quality relationship is the chief support for cognitive sweetening. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used by Kutnick and Kington in this research. For quantitative method, it involved quasi-experimental design. The intents of the design are to measure mated public presentation on SRTs every bit good as to compare their public presentation based on friendly relationship and familiarity, gender and ability. Besides that, cognitive undertaking was involved in this research. To promote pupils ‘ engagement, the undertaking has to be hard to analyze, understand or work out. It besides must let the spouses to take a assortment of point of position and show the undertakings as a job. Furthermore, the undertakings must upon scientific discipline undertakings because as said by Howe & A ; Tolmic ( 2003 ) , â€Å" they involve concluding in a figure of cognitive countries ( e.g. substance, measure, proportionality ) † . NFER ( 1979 ) besides stated that â€Å" Age appropriate undertakings were selected and piloted from the Bankss of SRTs for the three Old ages degrees † . Actual undertakings used in this survey included SRT1 ( anticipation of H2O degree in a atilt jar ; perspective-based drawing and anticipation of way of a plumb line in a container when tilted ) ; and SRT2 ( volume and weightiness, preservation of affair, and drifting and droping ) . For qualitative method, it involved interview which had done after pupils completed the undertakings separately. The interview was focused on activities the pupils involved with friends and illustrations of the activities that they shared inside and outside school. During the interview, there were some inquiries that had been asked to them. The inquiries included the qualities of best friends, schoolroom and school activities undertaken with friends and activities undertaken with friends outside the school. The findings or the consequences of the survey see the paired and single degrees. So, for the mated consequence, it was found that the highest SRTs degree was performed by miss ‘s friendship couplings. Boys friendly relationship coupling performed at the lowest degree, while mid-SRTs degrees are shown by both male childs and girl familiarity couplings. These findings were consistent across Year degrees and ability degrees. For the interviews, it revealed that male and female friendly relationship braces were likely to take part in different types of activity, with misss being school-inclusive and boys being school-exclusive. However, there was some statement on recent literature sing to kids ‘s public presentation on cognitive undertakings. Harmonizing to Galton et Al ( 2003 ) , public presentation in this activity will necessitate choice relationships between students. This besides taking some researches to reason that friendly relationship grouping ( partner offing kids ) should be used more often within schoolrooms. In contrast, reappraisals of the friendly relationship literature besides identify that friendly relationship is non a unitary construct ; that there are developmental and relational fluctuations of friendly relationship, and that the look of friendship activities may be modified through culture- particularly gendered activity within civilizations. Wells define cognitive development as â€Å" the building of idea procedures, including memory, job resolution, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to maturity. † Based on the research article, cognitive development of the pupils can be improved by societal interaction. The findings are applicable and utile for the instructors to use in the instruction and lesson in the schoolroom so that it will hike the pupils ‘ involvement in larning. For friendship-based couplings and groupings, it gives many benefits to the pupils when making undertakings. Basically, pupils are more prefer to hold brace work with friends that they are closed to. This is because they already know each other better and do non experience embarrass or shame to portion their ideas and thoughts when interact with them. They besides will take part more actively during the interaction and bask making the undertakings together. Teachers can evidently detect that they will hold better merchandises compared to the familiarity couplings. However, instructors should non allow pupils to merely make the undertakings based on friendly relationship and with the same individual all the clip. Teachers may exchange the couplings for every undertaking. The intent of making this is really to allow the pupils get to cognize other pupils in the schoolroom better, besides to further their relationships. So, when instructors do this often, they increasingly will acquire used to each other and will be able to work with another individual, even though they are non intimate. Besides that, when carry oning brace work, instructors should see pupils ‘ ability degree ; low, in-between and high. Teachers should non put pupils with the same ability together when making brace work undertaking. For illustration, do non allow low ability pupils working together because they are slow scholars. Teachers may detect that they will experience demotivated, will be left behind and the merchandise of the work is less quality when compared to the high ability couplings. Next, instructors may gain that the low ability couplings have lower public presentation when making undertaking. Conversely, if instructors put the pupils with different abilities together in a group, the high ability pupils will move as coachs which help the low ability pupils to understand the undertakings given. So, when they explain and discuss the undertakings together, the low ability pupils will experience comfy to inquire any inquiries together. Therefore, instructors should place pupils â⠂¬Ëœ ability, so that they can carry on effectual instruction and acquisition in order to heighten pupils ‘ cognitive development. Teachers excessively should promote their pupils to unite and mix with different sex during the couplings and groupings. It is good to unite male childs and misss for a undertaking, since male childs and misss have different degree of thought. Basically, misss are more industrious and more serious in their surveies compared to male childs who are more playful and do non truly concentrate in their surveies. When teacher blend them, male childs will be influenced by the misss ‘ properties and because of that, they are able to concentrate on their surveies alternatively of playing games or making unwanted things during the lessons. Furthermore, when they work together, they will derive each others ‘ cognition as male childs are excel in Mathematicss and Science topics compared to misss who are better in reading and composing competence particularly in linguistic communication topics. Hence, this will better pupils ‘ cognitive development. Besides concerted acquisition is other manner of learning attacks which helps to heighten pupils ‘ cognitive development. It can be defined as attacks to larning ( and learning ) which emphasise interaction between pupils and which foster concerted values ( John, 1995 ) . There are some illustrations of collaborating larning activities like saber saw, equal tutoring, brainstorming, function drama and job work outing which requires the pupils to construct up cooperation through group functions. Woolfolk ( cited in Webb & A ; Palinesar ( 1996 ) ) stated that concerted acquisition is â€Å" state of affairss where amplification, reading, account and debate are built-in to the activity of the group and where acquisition is supported by other persons. † When instructors apply this, it will advance concerted values and aid pupils to better their cognitive development. This besides helps the pupils to develop their positive attitudes and better their accomplishment in academic field. After completing the activities, there must be a follow up activity which reflects on what pupils have learnt. Besides, instructors might put them undertakings to be done in category or as prep. Capuzzi ( 2006 ) , asserted that â€Å" This may assist group members integrate acquisition and develop positions for the hereafter † when finishing prep given by instructors after the group ends. As instructors, to guarantee that both pair work and group work activities are effectual to the pupils in the acquisition, instructors must play their function as facilitator. Teachers merely give expressed instructions to them before get downing their couplings or groupings. Teachers must non spoon-feed them excessively, but allow them responsible for their ain acquisition, so that they will go independent scholar and pattern student-centered acquisition manner. Capuzzi ( cited in Kelman ( 1963 ) ) proposed that group work assisting members to get the better of feelings of isolation, develop hope for increased accommodation, learn to accept duty, develop new relationship accomplishments and heighten committedness to alter. In add-on, during the undertakings or activities, instructors have to supply inquiries or undertakings that can develop pupils to react right every bit good as which can ease pupils ‘ cognitive development. The inquiries besides must hold different degree of trouble which can dispute their thought. When pupils are instructed to happen the replies, they will discourse the inquiries and interact by reasoning their ain thoughts to happen the right replies. So, when pupils are actively take parting in the undertakings, they will portion the pre-requisite cognition among them and at the same clip construct up their cognition. There will be collaborative acquisition and concerted interactions between the pupils excessively. As a decision, cognitive development engages the pupils in the procedure of deriving information. It besides requires pupils to collaborate and interact each others to happen solutions to jobs. These cooperation and interaction will do the pupils to bask larning and they will look frontward to larning the topic. Besides, they will increasingly better in their academic public presentation and they will go originative and critical pupils. For instructors, their instructions will be effectual and this will make enthusiasm for learning the pupils. In add-on, it will hike instructors ‘ self-pride because effectual instruction takes topographic point in the schoolroom.

Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: a Bibliography

Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: A Bibliography By Sharon Verba July 20, 1997 Those women who struggle without giving up hope, herald the impending change†¦ : change in attitude for both men and women as they evaluate and re-evaluate their social roles†¦. -Rosemary Moyana, â€Å"Men & Women† Rereading, willful misreading, and de- and re-coding are tools used in African literature and womanist or feminist discourse to challenge â€Å"canonized ‘literature'† that tends to black out Black and blanch out Woman. -Kofi Owusu, â€Å"Canons Under Siege† T]he collective effort has to emerge from the ranks of those whose life is theorized. -Sisi Maqagi, â€Å"Who Theorizes† Feminist criticism of African literatures is a steadily growing field. The following bibliography includes articles and essays in English and French which examine African literatures (fiction, poetry, drama and oral literature) from a feminist or womanist per spective. It does not include, unfortunately, criticism in other languages — such as Wolof, Xhosa, Zulu, Portuguese, German, or Arabic — due to my own inability to read those languages.Also, authors whose works are originally written in languages other than French or English, such as Ngugi wa Thiongo's plays and the novel, Devil on the Cross, and Nawal al Sa'dawi's works, may be under-represented in this bibliography, as criticism often tends to be written in the language of the work being addressed. The first sections of this essay will present overviews on two key issues for those interested in both feminism and African literatures: the current ebate over the role of feminist criticisms in addressing African literatures, and an examination of the changes which have developed over the past decade in the ways feminist criticism approaches African literatures. This examination will trace these changes from 1985-1996 by considering articles which represent the ongoing ev olution of feminist criticism in this field. Finally, this essay also includes a section which explains my methodology and sources in compiling the bibliography, and a section offering hints for future searches, especially of online indexes. Feminist Criticism and African LiteratureMany issues of concern to feminist/womanist thought are raised and addressed in these articles. (1) Among the issues taken up in the state of feminist theory and criticism are the importance of feminism as a literary critical method; the representation and mis-representation of women in literary texts; the education of women; the access of women to the economic means of survival; motherhood; women in the domestic sphere; women as part of their communities; women's role in politics and revolution; sexuality; and the direct treatment of women by men, and men by women.Underlying this array of specific interests are questions of gender in representation and of the reality or realities of life for women in Afr ica–past, present, and future. The arguments found in the articles in this bibliography present a multiplicity of views, a few of which may even be anti-feminist, but all of which make gender a basis of discussion, and all of which offer much for the consideration of feminist thought with respect to African literatures.The state of feminist literary criticism/thought in Africa â€Å"now† is the direct focus of several of the articles, although all of the articles could be said in some degree or another to be a part of this particular debate. I put â€Å"now† in quotations, because these articles cover a broad range of time–1980-1996– and those which focus on this particular topic present an evolving discourse. Two collections of essays in particular are noteworthy for their presentation of a range of ideas on feminism and literary criticism in Africa: Ngambika: Studies of Women in African Literature (1986) and South African Feminisms: Writing, Theo ry and Criticism 990-1994 (1995). Ngambika includes twenty articles which focus on the representation of women in African literature. Taken together the articles provide an invaluable overview of the types of feminist criticism being applied to African literatures in the mid 1980s, although most do not focus on the issue of feminism as a critical method. One essay in this collection proves a notable exception. In the collection's introductory essay Carole Boyce Davies(2) does write of the tension found in the works of many critics of African literatures, especially female critics.These critics, she says, work out of a growing awareness of the requirement to balance both â€Å"the need to liberate African peoples from neo-colonialism and other forms of race and class oppression, coupled with a respect for certain features of traditional African cultures,† and â€Å"the recognition that a feminist consciousness is necessary in examining the position of women in African societi es† (1).Davies then outlines the issues of women writers in Africa (including the relatively small number of women writers) and the presentation of women in fiction written by African men, as well as the development of an African feminist criticism. In her treatment of the latter concern, she lists four major areas which African feminist critics tend to address: the development of the canon of African women writers, the examination of stereotyped images of women in African literature, the study of African women writers and the development of an African female aesthetic, and the examination of women and the oral tradition (13-14).While Davies acknowledges the objections African women writers and critics have to the term â€Å"feminist† and discusses womanist theory, she focuses on the idea of a developing African feminist theory which will not only perform the balancing act mentioned at the beginning, but continue to address the major issues she has outlined. Seven years later, in the 1993 publication A History of Twentieth-Century African Literatures, Davies and Elaine Savory Fido contributed a chapter entitled â€Å"African Women Writers: A Literary History. In it, they examine African women writers and their writings, focusing especially on the styles and genres used by these writers. Included is a brief segment on â€Å"Feminism and African Women Writers† as well as a separate section on â€Å"Criticism and African Women's Writing. † In the section on feminism, they note the continued reluctance of many African women writers and critics to be labeled as feminists because of the overtones of westernization the term carries, but they also point out that most African women writers are committed, in the words of Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie, â€Å"as a writer, as a woman and as a third world person† (339).This triple commitment encompasses much of the politics of African feminism, as well as womanism, whether the labels are accepte d or not. Fido and Davies conclude: â€Å"The role and history of feminist politics or activism on women's rights in Africa is a discourse which African women are studying and clarifying for themselves† (339). One of the places in which this discourse can be seen is South African Feminisms: Writing, Theory and Criticism 1990-1994.South African Feminisms presents a collection of articles on feminist literature and criticism, including and expanding the debate on feminist criticism of African literatures which was part of the special issue Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa 2 (1990). M. J. Daymond's introduction gives a good overview of the issues raised in the collection, including the debate over feminist criticism and the development of an African feminist theory.The section â€Å"Theory and Context† includes eight articles originally published from 1990-1993. Taken together, these articles constitute an excellent sampling of some of the issues and trends in African feminist criticism, including Sisi Maqagi's â€Å"Who Theorizes? † in which she questions the ability of white critics, African or non-African, female or male, to develop a theory which will adequately address the issues of black African women, rather than appropriating those issues, and the voices which raise them.Jill Arnott, in an article entitled â€Å"French Feminism in a South Africa? Gayatri Spivak and the Problem of Representation in South African Feminism,† contends that difference, which can often lead to misrepresentation, can also at times lead to accurate and insightful work: â€Å"to power a genuinely dialectical interaction between two vigilantly foregrounded subject-positions,† but only with an awareness of the position of ifference and a consciousness of the act of representation (87). Desiree Lewis, in â€Å"The Politics of Feminism in South Africa,† counters that such a conscious and effective use of difference may we ll be impossible, as long as there is a political climate in which white female academics are attempting to hold on to their power within the academy, at the expense of black women.In the same article she also points out that unless black working class women can make their statements about the current â€Å"oppressive orthodoxies† and do so without creating, as she argues Western feminism has, another oppressive orthodoxy, there may be no way out of the current impasse. Changes in Feminist Criticism of African Literature Although some of the articles included in this bibliography, like those above, examine feminist literary criticism as a topic, most focus on literary concerns: texts, authors, or issues.In the seventeen years this bibliography spans there are shifts in the coverage these concerns are given. Critical analyses of individual authors naturally both broaden and deepen over the years, especially as an individual author's body of work grows or is reclaimed from obsc urity. In general, in the 1990s there are fewer works of criticism that examine several authors and more which focus on individuals and their work than there were in the 1980s. Also, the topics focused upon subtly shift over the years. Images of women in the works of†¦. † could be the subtitle for many of the articles written in the 1980s as feminist critics examined representations, or misrepresentations, of African women in literary texts. At the same time these critics raised the question of the role of African authors, male and female, in expanding and/or correcting such representations. These concerns are still addressed; indeed, the feminist criticism on these topics is, like the criticism of specific authors, expanding and deepening.To highlight these changes, I shall examine here some of the collections and representative individual articles which have been produced over the years, beginning with the landmark collection Ngambika, which was published in 1986, follo wed by Women in African Literature Today in 1987, articles by Kofi Owusu and Elleke Boehmer in 1990, the 1990 issue of Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, Essays on African Writing 2: Contemporary Literature published in 1995 and The Marabout and the Muse: New Approaches to Islam in African Literature in 1996.All of the articles in the first section of Ngambika overtly tackle the issue of the representations of women in the works of African authors. Carole Boyce Davies writes one of these articles: â€Å"Maidens, Mistresses, and Matrons: Feminine Images in Selected Soyinka Works. † In it, she argues that Soyinka often offers only stereotyped images of women which fall into one of three categories: the foolish virgin in rural settings, the femme fatale in urban settings, and the masculinized matron.Those characters which fall in the latter category, in Davies' opinion, come closest to being non-stereotypes, but even they are drawn with â€Å"no depth† (81). The â€Å"foolish virgins† and the â€Å"femme fatales,† Davies argues, fill only the roles of stereotypes and symbols, possessions or trophies to be won away from Western influences by African traditions, or, more threateningly, these women are seen as dangers which can distract and destroy.Davies acknowledges that Soyinka sometimes shows women briefly in a positive light but notes that â€Å"throughout Soyinka's works one finds the kernel of positive portrayal of the female image which is never fully realized† (85). Davies concludes with the argument â€Å"that the artist has the power to create new realities;†¦ women as neither victors nor victims but partners in struggle† (86). Davies' article is representative of the criticism which examines the image of women in African literatures. That is, she carefully addresses the concerns of the author (i. e. he need for recognizable symbols) as she argues against the relegation of women solely to symbolic roles, asking for characterizations which do not â€Å"[reinforce] a negative perception of self to the female viewer/reader and, concomitantly, a condescension in the appraisal of women on the part of the male† (78). In the years following the publishing of Ngambika, several journals and monograph series devoted to African literatures published issues on women as authors of or characters in African literatures. One of the first was the Women in African Literature Today issue of African Literature Today (Vol. 5). Like Ngambika, this issue contains many excellent articles, almost all of which are written from a feminist perspective. I would like to discuss two of these articles as representative not merely of this particular collection, but of the feminist criticism on African literatures being published at this time. In â€Å"Feminist Issues in the Fiction of Kenya's Women Writers† Jean F. O'Barr list three main categories of feminist concerns in the fiction of Kenyan woman writers: â€Å"how female children become women; †¦ what marriage means for women;†¦ here women's work fits into their lives† (57). O'Barr notes that the women authors she analyzes â€Å"all write from the woman's point of view, sharply underscoring the idea that the female perspective †¦. may be different from the male perspective on the same topic† (58). O'Barr analyzes the works of Kenya's female authors from a sociological approach, hoping to establish a stronger image of the social lives of Kenya's women than is possible from the works of male authors. She concludes that Kenya's women find themselves in a quadruple bind: â€Å"they see themselves performing traditional roles†¦ ithout traditional resources†¦ while at the same time they are undertaking modern activities†¦ while being denied access to modern support systems† (69). While O'Barr looks at the fiction of Kenyan women in order to locate the reality of w omen's lives, Katherine Frank attempts in the controversial article â€Å"Women without Men: The Feminist Novel in Africa† to find a radically feminist future for African women. Frank endeavors to place African women writers into the Western feminist mold by speaking of their work as a more radical extension of the Western feminist tradition.In speaking of â€Å"the contemporary British or American novel† she claims â€Å"our heroine slams the door on her domestic prison, journeys out into the great world, slays the dragon of her patriarchal society, and triumphantly discovers the grail of feminism by ‘finding herself,'† (14). She argues that in comparison African novels by women go far beyond their Western counterparts, refusing to â€Å"dabble in daydreaming about enlightened heroes or reformed, non-sexist societies,† (15). Frank finds that the â€Å"feminist† writers of Africa portray women not only as taking on active and shared roles wit h men, but as finding â€Å"a destiny of their own. †¦ destiny with a vengeance,† (15). Frank contends that Mariama Ba, Flora Nwapa, Buchi Emecheta and Ama Ata Aidoo's novels are, in their feminisms, â€Å"more radical, even more militant, than [their] Western counterpart[s]† (15). But Frank's interpretations place African heroines on a path which is not different, but rather the same, if more intense, than the one taken by the British and American heroines she notes above. Frank stresses that in these novels women find only pain and degradation in their relationships with men, but on their own and in their relationships with other women they find â€Å"female solidarity, power, independence† (33).In her interpretation, Barr neglects to note examples in which the future is shared by men and women. For example, when she speaks of Mariama Ba's So Long a Letter, she focuses on Ramatoulaye and Aissatou's friendship and the â€Å"world they create apart from me n,† (20). While this in itself glosses over the complex (and by no means completely negative) relationships these women have with the men in their lives, she also does not speak of Ramatoulaye's daughter and son-in-law, and the hope Ramatoulaye finds in their relationship.In this article, Frank does not acknowledge a difference between demonstrating that a woman's worth is not inextricable from her relationship with men, that a woman can take care of herself, as Ramatoulaye discovers, and an actual desire to live a life without men. However, controversial as some of her interpretations are, her essay effectively outlines the some of the subtle feminisms of African women novelists.Katherine Frank's stance is one which falls into the category of â€Å"radical, feminist-separatist ideology† which Kofi Owusu defines and rejects in his article in Callaloo entitled â€Å"Canons Under Siege: Blackness, Femaleness, and Ama Ata Aidoo's Our Sister Killjoy†(1990). While Fra nk sees Aidoo's character Sissie as moving towards an autonomous, self-determining life without men (Frank 32), Owusu finds Aidoo to be â€Å"in tune with the ‘old' (Achebe's ‘vast corpus of African traditional stories') and the ‘new' (‘modern feminist theory') (357).Owusu sees Aidoo, and other female writers, not as bridging a gap between Western and African thought but creating something new out of both and challenging the canons that would ignore either black or female concerns. Much of Owusu's article analyzes â€Å"the discontinuities as well as continuities between womanist-feminist perspectives, on the one hand, and African literature, on the other† (342), allowing Owusu to regard Aidoo's work as one which â€Å"give[s] a sense of structural and linguistic irony which is functional. †¦ signify[ing] a couple of things: the need for, and very process of, revamping† (361).Here, the canons need to be reformed in recognition of both race and gender, not one or the other, or one without the other. While Kofi Owusu focused on Aidoo's linguistic and textual manipulations, the question of the image of women in African literature continues to be a highly examined topic. Elleke Boehmer explores the construction of women as mothers, whores, representations of national pride, or finally, as spiritual advisors and supporters, but not as individuals actively and crucially involved in political activity.In â€Å"Of Goddesses and Stories: Gender and a New Politics in Achebe's Anthills of the Savannah,† Boehmer analyzes Chinua Achebe's efforts to include women in his re-vision of the future and questions whether women remain a â€Å"vehicle† of transformation rather than actual women with an active role in the future of the country, that is, whether â€Å"woman is the ground of change or discursive displacement but not the subject of transformation† (102).She concludes that Achebe has still idealized women but that his creation of a female character with an important yet undefined role for the future has opened up space for women to have active and involved roles, side by side with men, in the building of the future. Like Davies' article on Soyinka from Ngambika discussed earlier, Boehmer's work recognizes Achebe's literary prowess and commends his willingness to make women positive symbols, but in the end laments the lack of depth in his female characters.Although South African Feminisms was published in 1996, many of the articles in it come from the 1990 issue of Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, which was dedicated to â€Å"Feminism and Writing. † This issue continued the trend of publishing articles debating not only the appropriateness of feminism in an African context but also the challenges of applying it to African literatures, as well as articles focusing on women writers or women's images in literature.In â€Å"A Correspondence Without Theory: T sitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions,† Brenda Bosman addresses the psychological dislocation forced upon the women of the heroine's family by â€Å"Englishness,† the term used by her mother to describe the process of assimilation which various members of the family undergo. However, one of the most interesting aspects of the article is Bosman's explicit attempt to find a position from which to speak, as a white South African woman, to –not for, or of– Dangarembga.She writes her article in the form of a letter to Dangarembga, and acknowledges that she might not have succeeded in finding a legitimate position: â€Å"you may find†¦ despite all my conscious efforts, I have nonetheless submitted to the voice of my education†(311). Considering the problematics of education in Nervous Conditions, this could be seen as a double entendre, but her article shows a conscious attempt to find a place from which to speak comfortably, an increasingly difficu lt matter for some African feminists.The last two articles I will discuss reveal change in the field of feminist criticism of Africa on two levels: both are located in collections of essays on African literature which can be considered â€Å"general,† and both are examples of the further increase in variety in the forms of feminist criticism of African literature. Although very good collections of critical essays focusing exclusively on women and African literature are published, it is important to note that few, if any â€Å"general† collections are now being published without the inclusion of at least one, if not several essays which address feminist concerns.In Essays on African Writing 2: Contemporary Literature (1995), there are three articles which are written from a feminist perspective. One of these is Belinda Jack's â€Å"Strategies of Transgression in the Writings of Assia Djebar. † In it she explores the means by which Djebar writes for Arabic women o f Algeria in the language of the colonizer.Jack distinguishes Djebar's writings by arguing that her â€Å"texts are not written in the French language but a French language† a language which no longer belongs to the colonizers because of the deliberate shifts Djebar makes (23). Jack also notes that Djebar also transgresses against Islam in her choices of subject matter, especially sexuality, again firm in the knowledge that while such speech may be a transgression, it is only a transgression because with speech (or writing) comes power.The last article I wish to discuss also focuses on Assia Djebar and her concerns with Islam. The Marabout and the Muse: New Approaches to Islam in African Literature (1996) contains four articles which approach literature from a distinctly feminist perspective: one on Somali women's Sittaat (songs sung for and to notable women in Islamic history), one on the tradition of female Islamic writers in Nigeria, and two which examine Djebar's Loin de Medine.In â€Å"Daughters of Hagar: Daughters of Muhammad† Sonia Lee argues that through her early fictional exploration of women in Islam, Djebar is attempting to make a space for Islamic women â€Å"to reclaim the true law of God† (60). Lee finds that Djebar's historical training combined with her literary skills allow her to â€Å"[oscillate] between the actual and the probable, thus underlying the real subject matter of the novel, †¦. the problematic of Islamic collective memory with regard to women† (51). The above articles typify the growing expansion of feminist approaches to African literatures.While feminist criticisms continue to broaden the literary canon by bringing literature by African women to critical attention and continue to address the representation of African women in literatures, the methods used by such criticism in relation to African literatures continue to evolve. As feminist critics, both African and non-African, use sociological, linguistic, psychoanalytic, historical and other approaches to broaden the examination of African literatures, at least some Western feminist critics are also trying to incorporate a heightened awareness of their own positions with regards to the authors and literatures they discuss.Methodology This bibliography is, in every sense of the word, selective. African authors were included if an article (in English or French) could be located which discussed him or her from the angle of feminism, womanism, or the treatment of gender. Authors were not excluded or included on any other basis, including race and gender. Interviews were included for many of the female writers because such interviews often are a main source of feminist thought (their own) on their works.The sources I used to find these articles were the bibliographies of African literature located in the journal Callaloo (1987-89 and 1990-93), the MLA Bibliography, the African studies bibliographies for the years 1995-96, the CD-Rom resource Women's Resources International, 1972-August 1996, as well as various library catalogs for monographs, whether collections or single-authored. In addition, I scanned the bibliographies of articles and books to find other relevant citations.There are several good bibliographies which focus, at least in part, on feminist criticism of African literatures from the 1970s through the mid 1980s. Brenda Berrian's Bibliography of African Women Writers and Journalists, Carole Boyce Davies' â€Å"A Bibliography of Criticism and Related Works† in Ngambika, and Barbara Fister's bibliography on criticism in Third World Women's Literature in combination cover this earlier period very thoroughly.I did not use these bibliographies to compile this one; to avoid excess duplication, I have focused on criticism published from 1980 on and simply cite these earlier bibliographies at the end of this one, although I am sure some duplication has occurred. This bibliography is organize d by authors and also includes a section on general works, which is organized first by those which cover African literatures without focusing on a specific country, region or author, then by region, and then individual countries.Works of criticism are placed in this section if they refer to several authors/works from the continent, a particular region, or country. If an article focuses on four or fewer authors, it is included under the name of each author. The bibliography includes articles on eighty-seven individual authors, as well as general articles on Africa, East Africa, North Africa, West Africa, Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, Somali, South Africa, and Zimbabwe; it cites more than four hundred articles and monographs.It is interesting to compare the authors found in this bibliography with the ninety-five authors found in the biography section of Hans Zell's A New Reader's Guide to African Fiction (1st ed. , 1971; 2nd rev. ed. ,1983). The authors in Zell's work are o ften considered the early canon of African literatures. Only twenty-five authors appear in both the current bibliography and Hans Zell's Guide. There may be several reasons for this difference. Many of the authors included in my bibliography were not then considered a part of the canon of African literature; and a few had not even published at the time Zell's work appeared.Carole Boyce Davies also offers an insight which may explain the lack of overlap. She notes in her introduction to Ngambika that one of the priorities of African feminist literary criticism is â€Å"the development of a canon of African women writers and a parallel canon of critical works with the final aim of expanding the African literary canon† (14). The Guides were compiled in the early years of this expansion, and it is quite possible that today the lists would be more reflective of each other.At the same time, many African women writers actively rebuke attempts to place African men on the defensive, a rguing that a critical approach to literature (as well as other social, political, and cultural expressions) must explore the strengths of both African women and African men. While feminist criticism does focus on male authors, it more often strives to bring to the forefront of literary discussions the works of female African authors and the strong, individualistic portrayals of women they offer.Future Search Hints The issues discussed above make feminist criticism of African fiction an exciting and dynamic field. They also make it a very complex field to research. There are several issues to keep in mind when beginning research in this area. One of the most difficult to overcome is the lack of coverage of this area in mainstream indexing sources, such as the MLA, especially when one looks for early works, which were often carried in journals not then indexed by the MLA.Other sources which do cover these journals, such as the excellent bibliographies periodically offered by Callaloo on studies of African literature, do not offer separate sections for feminist criticism, and it is necessary to assess which ones are relevant by the titles or, at times, the authors, of the articles. For my own part it should be noted that it is entirely possible that I have missed articles which should appear in this bibliography.Many of the best sources are only available in print, such as International African Bibliography, Current Bibliography of African Affairs, and Cahiers d'etudes africaines, which are more time-consuming to search, but well worth the effort. As the discussion above indicates, the term â€Å"feminism† can be extremely limiting when it is being used as a descriptor in either online or print indexes. For this reason, it is advisable to keep other terms in mind when searching for articles, whether in print or electronic resources, such as the keywords/descriptors â€Å"Gender† and â€Å"Womanism/Womanist†.It is important, as well, not to l imit searches to the term â€Å"African. † While some articles are indexed with this descriptor, those articles which deal with a specific author may be listed under that author's country instead, as of course are those which deal with the literatures of a specific region or country. Finally, especially when searching for articles in online indexes, it is useful to keep in mind specific topics, such as â€Å"sexuality,† â€Å"motherhood,† and â€Å"politics† combined with â€Å"women† or â€Å"female. â€Å"